Causative Namespace
Core Definition
Causative frames foreground an Agent or Cause that brings about a change in another entity. The namespace captures situations where causation itself is the primary semantic content: one entity or event initiates or triggers a state change or result in a Patient. Causative frames are typically result-oriented and telic — the caused change or resultant state is semantically salient and independently verifiable.
Formal template:
CAUSE(Agent/Cause, BECOME(State(Patient)))
Key participants:
- Agent/Cause — the entity that initiates the event (subject position)
- Patient — the entity that undergoes the change (object position)
- Result — the resultant state the Patient reaches
Scope
Includes:
- Direct physical causation: João quebrou o vaso (João broke the vase)
- Creation events: Maria construiu uma casa (Maria built a house)
- Change-of-state causation: O calor derreteu o gelo (Heat melted the ice)
- Natural / physical force causation: O vento quebrou a janela (The wind broke the window), A enchente destruiu a ponte (The flood destroyed the bridge)
- Abstract or biological causation: A doença matou milhares (The disease killed thousands)
- Social/institutional causation: O juiz condenou o réu (The judge convicted the defendant)
- Psychological causation: Maria convenceu João a sair (Maria convinced João to leave)
Excludes — see other namespaces:
- Agentive activities without results → Action (João correu — João ran)
- Intransitive natural phenomena with no caused result → Eventive (O vento soprou, Choveu)
- Result-state change with the causer not profiled (affected entity in subject) → Inchoative (O vaso quebrou — The vase broke)
- Path/goal-oriented motion → Transition
Critical boundary — natural forces are non-intentional Causes: A natural or physical force that acts on a Patient to produce a result is a Cause, so the frame is Causative — not Eventive. What gates Causative is the caused change (Cause/Agent → Patient → Result), not whether the causer is sentient:
- O vento quebrou a janela → Causative (o vento = non-intentional Cause; janela = Patient; quebrada = Result)
- João quebrou a janela → Causative (João = intentional Agent)
- O vento soprou → Eventive (no Patient, no caused result — a bare occurrence)
The causer's nature only chooses Agent vs. Cause inside Causative; it never moves the frame to Eventive. And when the affected entity is in subject position with the causer unprofiled (A janela quebrou), the frame is Inchoative — the Causative/Inchoative choice is decided by the subject (causer → Causative; affected entity → Inchoative).
Subtypes
By intentionality:
| Subtype | Features | Example LUs |
|---|---|---|
| Intentional (Agent) | Volitional, sentient; carries responsibility for result | matar, construir, quebrar, abrir |
| Non-intentional (Cause) | Natural/physical, biological, abstract or institutional force; no volition | o vento quebrou, o calor derreteu, a doença matou, a política levou a |
| Accidental (Agent) | Sentient agent, unintended result; requires explicit marker (sem querer) | quebrar sem querer, derrubar acidentalmente |
By directness:
| Subtype | Features | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Direct | Single causal link, expressed in one verb | João quebrou o vaso |
| Indirect | Causal chain; often requires periphrasis | João fez Maria sair, A política levou ao desemprego |
By domain: Physical (quebrar, derreter, cortar), social (demitir, aprovar, condenar), psychological (convencer, assustar, emocionar). Domain affects what constitutes a valid Agent/Cause and result, but does not change the core causative structure.
Aspect: Causative frames can be achievements (punctual result: quebrar, matar) or accomplishments (durative process leading to result: construir, pintar). Both accept em X tempo; the accomplishment type also accepts por X tempo to emphasize the process phase.
Diagnostic Tests
Test 1 — Periphrastic causative
Can the frame be paraphrased with fazer com que (make it so that)?
✓ João quebrou o vaso → João fez com que o vaso quebrasse → CAUSATIVE
✓ Maria abriu a porta → Maria fez com que a porta abrisse → CAUSATIVE
✗ João correu → ?João fez com que corresse (coercion needed) → NOT CAUSATIVE (Action)
Test 2 — Causative-inchoative alternation
Does the frame alternate between a transitive (Agent subject) and intransitive (Patient subject) form?
✓ João abriu a porta ↔ A porta abriu → CAUSATIVE / INCHOATIVE pair
✓ Maria derreteu o gelo ↔ O gelo derreteu → CAUSATIVE / INCHOATIVE pair
✗ João construiu a casa ↔ *A casa construiu (no alternation — creation verb, Patient didn't pre-exist)
Non-alternating creation verbs (construir, criar, fabricar) are still Causative; they simply don't have an inchoative counterpart.
Test 3 — Result state
Does the frame entail a specific resultant state, independently verifiable after the event?
✓ João quebrou o vaso → O vaso está quebrado → CAUSATIVE
✓ Maria abriu a porta → A porta está aberta → CAUSATIVE
✗ João correu → *João está corrido (no result state) → NOT CAUSATIVE (Action)
Test 4 — Intentionality (Agent vs. Cause)
Is the causer compatible with purpose clauses and intentionality adverbs?
Agent (intentional):
✓ João quebrou o vaso deliberadamente
✓ João quebrou o vaso para irritar Maria
Cause (non-intentional):
✗ *A doença matou deliberadamente
✗ *O erro causou o acidente para irritar alguém
Incompatibility with intentionality markers signals a Cause rather than an Agent.
Test 5 — Passivization
Can the frame passivize, with the Agent expressed in a por phrase?
✓ João quebrou o vaso → O vaso foi quebrado por João → CAUSATIVE
✓ Maria construiu a casa → A casa foi construída por Maria → CAUSATIVE
✗ *Isso custa dez reais → *Dez reais são custados por isso → NOT CAUSATIVE
Decision Procedure — Action vs Causative
Most Action/Causative misclassifications come from a handful of transitive verbs. Apply these rules in order; the first that fires wins. (This block is identical in the Action entry — it is the single canonical tie-breaker.)
Rule 0 — Agent gate (run first). If the subject need not be a volitional Agent, the frame is neither Action nor Causative:
- Subject ends up in a new state with no required causer → Inchoative (O Recipiente termina em posse da Massa).
- A property simply holds of an entity → Stative / Attribute (X é adequado para um Propósito).
- A pure speech act / discourse move → Pragmatic.
Rule 1 — Result-state test (the discriminator). After the event, does "X ficou / está ___" hold of an affected entity?
- Yes, verifiable result state → Causative (X is the Patient).
- No → continue.
Rule 2 — Periphrastic causative. Can it be paraphrased with fazer com que … (mude / fique)?
- João fez com que o vaso quebrasse ✓ → Causative.
- ?João fez com que corresse (coercion needed) ✗ → Action.
Rule 3 — Object role. If the frame takes an object, is it changed or merely used?
- Changed (Patient): cortar, limpar, quebrar, abrir, mover → está cortado / limpo / movido → Causative.
- Unaffected (Instrument / content / value): tocar (violão), acessar (mídia), usar (um Valor) → Action.
- Contact without change: esfregar, acariciar, abraçar, beijar, bater, chutar → Action — unless a result is profiled (bateu e quebrou; empurrou a mesa → a mesa ficou no canto) → Causative.
Rule 4 — Purpose ≠ result. Goal phrases (para enfraquecer, destinada a incomodar, para buscar reparação) state intent, not an achieved result. They confirm agency but keep the frame Action.
Rule 5 — Cognition & speech outputs are content, not Patients. A computed Result, an asserted Message, an evaluated Conteúdo is the output of the activity, not an entity changed in state → Action (cognitive / verbal). Exception: when the experiencer himself changes state (Um Evento faz com que o Pensador aceite o Conteúdo — the Thinker comes to accept) → Causative (psychological).
Telicity cross-check. When Rules 1–3 are genuinely tied, fall back to aspect: por X tempo (atelic) → Action; em X tempo with an entailed endpoint → Causative.
Comparison with Adjacent Namespaces
| Feature | Causative | Action | Inchoative | Eventive | Transition |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agent / Cause required | Yes | Yes | No | No | No |
| Result state profiled | Yes | No | Yes | No | No |
| Telic (inherent endpoint) | Yes | No | Yes | Varies | Varies |
| Causation profiled | Yes | No | No | No | No |
| Dynamic | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
vs. Action: Both require an Agent, but Action frames are process-focused with no obligatory result (João correu). Causative frames are result-focused: the Patient changes state and the result is independently verifiable (João quebrou o vaso → o vaso está quebrado). When in doubt, apply Test 3.
vs. Inchoative: These are two perspectives on the same event — Causative profiles the Agent/Cause (João quebrou o vaso), Inchoative profiles the affected Patient (O vaso quebrou). Many verbs participate in this alternation; the namespace depends on which participant is in subject position and whether causation is profiled.
vs. Eventive: The defining criterion is the caused change, not agency. If the frame profiles a causer (of any kind — Agent, abstract Cause, or a natural/physical force) acting on a Patient to produce a Result, it is Causative (O vento quebrou a janela, A doença matou milhares). Eventive is reserved for bare occurrences with no caused result — natural phenomena (Choveu, O vento soprou), spontaneous processes, and existence. A natural force is never a reason to choose Eventive over Causative; it is simply a non-intentional Cause.
vs. Transition: Transition frames profile movement along a path to a goal (João foi para casa). Causative frames profile a causer bringing about a change in a Patient — directional path is not central to causation.